Securing water for an emerging Australian hydrogen industry
For the first time, we’ve mapped the potential environmental and water impacts of hydrogen development at a regional scale. Our new Methods Report, complete with fact sheets and the interactive Causal Network Explorer, helps pinpoint where impacts can – and can’t – be ruled out.
The global transition to net-zero
CSIRO assessed the resource requirements for a future hydrogen industry through the ‘Securing water for an emerging Australian hydrogen industry’ project, funded by the National Water Grid Fund. The project used spatial causal networks (Peeters et al. 2022) that combine systematic hazard identification, conceptual system understanding, and a robust risk assessment with the transparent logic of cause-and-effect relationships. Spatial causal networks provide a structured evidence base to determine where potential impacts from future development can and cannot be ruled out. Preliminary findings were shared at meetings held in Port Augusta, Port Hedland, Karratha and Gladstone in 2024.
Green hydrogen causal network for the Fitzroy region (CSIRO 2025)
Estimating water and land requirements
Water and land hold significant cultural and spiritual values for First Nations people and are critical to key industries including agriculture, aquaculture, mining, energy and tourism. Water withdrawal estimates for hydrogen production based on 28 projects were comparable with published estimates (15–170 L/kg H2). The volume of water needed depends on the salinity and quality of the water supply, from treated drinking water to seawater, and how the electrolyser was cooled, from air cooling to evaporative cooling. The project also estimated how much water is needed for construction and operation of renewable energy infrastructure.
The land footprint of solar or wind renewable-energy generation was estimated from international literature, environmental impact statements and analysis of satellite imagery. Areas directly impacted include ancillary and electrical infrastructure, solar panel array areas, and access roads. Direct impact area as a proportion of total project area was about 75% for solar and less than 1% for wind energy. Native vegetation covered less than 5% of the cleared area for solar and about one-third for wind energy projects.
Schematic of water, land and wastewater footprints for green hydrogen production (Holland et al. 2025).
Assessment methodology
The project developed and tested a nationally consistent method to spatially assess resource availability for a future hydrogen industry at a regional scale. The method uses quantitative estimates of the resources required for hydrogen production and associated renewable-energy infrastructure in each region. Potential impacts from hydrogen production were assessed in 3 regions across Australia that encompass different physical characteristics, geography, and jurisdictions to provide a robust test of the methodology:
- Fitzroy region in Queensland covers 23,206 km2 and the extended region covers 52,228 km2.
- Pilbara region in Western Australia covers 177,991 km2 and the extended region covers 249,387 km2.
- Upper Spencer Gulf region in South Australia covers 8,838 km2 and the extended region covers 33,225 km2.
Assessment areas in the Pilbara in Western Australia (left), Upper Spencer Gulf in South Australia (centre), and the Fitzroy in Queensland (right)
- Holland KL, Peeters LJM, London A, Crosbie R, Macfarlane C, Vanderzalm J, Thomas H, Turnadge C, Charles S, Hofmann H (2025) Securing water for an emerging Australian hydrogen industry: Methods report. CSIRO, Australia. csiro:EP2025-0743. https://doi.org/10.25919/g14n-5q30
Fact sheets
The methods report includes 5 fact sheets that summarise the resource requirements for hydrogen production and renewable-energy infrastructure at a regional scale and give a more detailed overview of the results of the impact assessment for the 3 regions.
- Water requirements for renewable hydrogen production
- Land requirements for renewable-energy hydrogen production
- Hydrogen development in the Fitzroy region, Queensland
- Hydrogen development in the Pilbara region, Western Australia
- Hydrogen development in the Upper Spencer Gulf region, South Australia
CSIRO Causal Network Explorer
The impact assessment is supported by an interactive causal network, CSIRO’s Causal Network Explorer. The online tool provides access to node and link descriptions which provide additional context and scientific meaning to support the assessment. See CSIRO Causal network explorer: https://causalnetworks.csiro.au/project/sustainable-hydrogen.
